[01] Isaac Eshun, Department of Social Studies Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. [02] Thomas Prehi Botchway, Department of Political Science Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. [03] Pamela Ekua Payne, Centre for Conflict, Human Rights and Peace Studies, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana.

This study examines human and environmental rights issues in unregulated artisanal small-scale mining and its impact on the communities in the Mpohor District of the Western Region of Ghana. Mixed methods approach and descriptive survey design were employed in this study. Purposive and simple random techniques were employed to select 117 participants. Structured questionnaire and semi-structured interview guide were the instruments used for data collection. SPSS software was used to analyse the quantitative data, while thematic analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data. Findings of this study were that unregulated mining activities polluted most of the water bodies within the district. This led to the destruction of most farmlands and removed the vegetation containing important species supporting mans’ survival. It also increased erosion and loss of viability for agricultural purposes, among other uses. Also, unregulated Artisanal Small-Scale Mining (ASM) denied residents the right to clean water, health, and arable land, displacing people from their natural residence and inflation occurring which negatively affect the wellbeing of the local population. Also, children engaged in mining and this deprive them of their education and spreading problems of psychological or behavioural nature such as alcoholism and prostitution. It is recommended that government should embark on education of the effects of unregulated ASM on the health, environment, and the livelihood of the indigenous populace, and its associated socio-economic impact on posterity. Also, the government can develop and invest in legalizing unregulated ASM and enforcing laws and policies to reduce the environmental hazards in the communities.

Environmental Rights, Human Rights, Ghana, Mpohor District, Small-Scale Mining, Unregulated Mining

[01] Hilson, G., (2001). The environmental impact of small-scale gold mining in Ghana: Identifying problems and possible solutions. Geogr. J., 16 (8), 57-72. [02] Hilson, G., & Murck, B. (2000). Sustainable development in the mining industry: Clarifying the corporate perspective. Resources Policy, 26, 227–238. [03] Buxton, A. (2013). Responding to the challenge of artisanal and small-scale mining: How can knowledge networks help? London: IIED. [04] Fatawu N. A., & Allan, A. (2014). Managing the impacts of mining on Ghana’s water resources from a legal perspective. Journal of Energy and Natural Resource Management, 1 (3), 156-165. [05] Bugnosen, E. (2003). Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned in the socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse: Abingdon. [06] Human Rights Watch (2015). Precious metal, cheap labour: Child labour and corporate responsibility in Ghana’s artisanal gold mines. New York: Human Rights Watch. [07] CSIR-FORIG. (2017). Impacts of unregulated mining on the environment. Accra: CSIR. [08] Boadi, S., Nsor, C., & Osei O. A., & Acquah, E. (2016). An analysis of illegal mining on the Offin shelterbelt forest reserve, Ghana: Implications on community livelihood. Journal of Sustainable Mining, 15 (10), 12-22. [09] Abdulai, A. (2017). Competitive clientelism and the political economy of mining in Ghana. ESID Working Paper No. 78. [10] African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC, 2013). Effects of illegal and informal mining. Pretoria: SAHRC. [11] Owusu, O., Bansah, K., & Mensah, A. (2018). Small in size, but big in impact: Socio-environmental reforms for sustainable artisanal and small-scale mining. Journal of Sustainable Mining, 18 (1), 38-44. [12] Verité, P. (2016). Report on illegal gold mining. Retrieved from https://www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Verite-Report-Illegal_Gold_Mining-2.pdf [13] Osei-Bagyina, A. (2012). Assessment of the impact of mining on the land use systems and livelihoods in the Obuasi Municipality. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/4555 [14] Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala. (2006). May God give us chaos, so that we can plunder: A critique of “Resource Curse” and Conflict Theories? Development 49, 14–21. [15] Agbesi, K. M. (2017). Galamsey menace: Causes, effects and solutions. Retrieved from: https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/Galamsey-menace-Causes-effects-and-solutions/ [16] Twerefou, D. K., Tutu, K., Owusu-Afriyie, J., & Adjei-Mantey, K. (2015). Attitudes of local people to mining policies and interventions. E-33107-GHA-1. [17] Sarpong, G. (2016). Galamsey enterprise: A threat to Ghana’s biodiversity. Retrieved from http://lightmagazineafrica.com/2016/09/06/galamsey-enterprise-a-threat-to-ghanas biodiversity.html [18] Djurfeldt, G., Holmen H., Jirstrom, M., & Larsson, R. (2005). The African food crisis: Lesson from the Asian Green revolution. New York: Sage. [19] Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR) (2014). Annual performance report. Accra: MLNR. [20] Boamah, N. A., (2013). Land use controls and residential land values in the Offinso South municipality, Ghana. Land Use Policy, 33, 11-21. [21] Jonsson, U. (2003). A human rights approach to development programming. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund. [22] Almero, T. (2018). Capacities of duty-bearers and right-holders. New York: Right Commission. [23] Brysk, A. (2013). Human rights movements. doi: 10.1002/9780470674871. [24] Gready, P., & Vandenhole, W. (2014). Failures and successes of Human Rights Based approaches to development: Towards a change perspective. Nordic Journal of Human Rights, 32 (4) 291-311. [25] Alkstal, E. (2017). Doing development right: The rights-based approach. Södertörn: Södertörn University. [26] OHCHR. (2013). UN Practitioners' portal on HRBA programming. Retrieved from www.hrbaportal.org [27] Kumah, A. (2006). Sustainability and gold mining in the developing world. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14, 315-323. [28] Andrews, N. (2015). Digging for survival and/or justice? The drivers of illegal mining activities in Western Ghana. Africa Today, 62 (2), 2-24. DOI: 10.2979/africatoday.62.2.3. [29] Munyoa, P. (2013). Human right-based approach and the issues of right-holders. Global Journal of Human Right, 17 (6), 21-33. [30] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948). New York: United Nations. [31] Civil Society Coalition for Poverty Eradication (2005). Liberalization deregulation and privatization education in Nigeria. Abuja: CISCOPE. [32] Rokeya, B. (1997). Human rights: An overview in historical perspective. Sociological Journal, 12 (7) 1-12. [33] Hayward, T., (2005). Constitutional environmental rights, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [34] Hunter, D., Salzman, J., & Zaelke, D. (2002). International environmental law and policy. New York, NY: Foundation Press. [35] Tschakert, P. (2009). Digging deep for justice: A radical re-imagination of the artisanal gold mining sector in Ghana. Antipode, 41 (4), 706-740. [36] Charis, D. D. (1994). Environmental science-action for sustainable future. Redwood City, California: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company Inc. [37] Gunson, A. J. & Jian, Y. (2001). Artisanal mining in the People’s Republic of China. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development, 74 (4), 23-41. [38] Heemskerk, M. (2003). Self-employment and poverty alleviation: women’s work in artisanal gold mines. Hum. Organ. 61 (1), 62-73. [39] Labonne, B., (1996). Artisanal mining: an economic stepping stone for women. Nat. Resour. Forum 20 (2), 117–122. [40] Hinton, J. J., Veiga, M. M., Beinhoff, C. (2004). Women and artisanal mining: Gender roles and the road ahead. In: Hilson, G. (Ed.), The Socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. London: Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 161–203. [41] Chakravorty, S. L. (2001). Artisanal and small-scale mining in India. London: IIED. [42] ILO (International Labour Organization). (2005). Digging for survival: The harsh reality of child mining worldwide. Retrieved from: http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/ newsroom/features / WCMS_075561/lang-en/index.htm. [43] Hilson, G. M. (2010). A contextual review of the Ghanaian small-scale mining industry. MMSD 76, 2-30. [44] Ontoyin, J., & Agyemang, I. (2014). Environmental and rural livelihoods implications of small-scale gold mining in Talensi-Nabdam Districts in Northern Ghana. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, 7. 150-159. [45] Hayes, K., & Wagner, F. (2008). Artisanal and small-scale mining and livelihoods in Africa. Retrieved from http://CFC_Paper_ASM_Livelihoods_in_Africa-FINAL.pdf [46] Jaiye, D. (2013). The environmental implication of illegal mining activities in Nigeria, a case study of Pandogari and Barkin Ladi/Buruku surface mines in Niger/plateau states. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 13. 13-19. [47] Lausch, A., & Herzog, F. (2002). Applicability of landscape metrics for the monitoring of landscape change: Issues of scale, resolution and interpretability. Ecological Indicators, 13 (6), 15-24. [48] Sahu, B. H., & Dash, S. (2011). Land degradation due to mining in India and its mitigation measures. Singapore: IACSIT Press. [49] Akabzaa T. (2007). African mining codes, a race to the bottom. African Agenda, 7 (3), 62-73. [50] Mancini, L., & Sala, S. (2018). Social impact assessment in the mining sector: review and comparison of indicators frameworks. Resource. Politics., 57 (4), 98-111. [51] Mensah K. A., Mahiri I. O., Owusu O., Mireku O. D., Wireko I., & Kissi E. A. (2015). Environmental impacts of mining: A study of mining communities in Ghana. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Sci. 3 (3), 81-94. [52] Tom-Dery, D. (2012). Effect of illegal small-scale mining operations on vegetation cover of arid Northern Ghana. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Effect-of-Illegal-Small-Scale-Mining-Operations-on-Tom-Dery/00f361113e4a9f40f065650e8e4dd9bdd9f705a4 [53] Iddirisu, A. Y., & Tsikata, F. S. (1998). Mining sector development and environment project: Regulatory framework study to assist small scale miners. Accra: Minerals Commission Board. [54] Corral, M. D., & Earle, J. L. (2009). Gold mining: Formation and resource estimation, economics and environmental impact. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. [55] Nyame, F. K., & Grant J. A. (2014). The political economy of transitory mining in Ghana: Understanding the trajectories, triumphs, and tribulations of artisanal and small-scale operators. Extractive Industries and Society, 10 (11), 10-40. [56] Adepoju, A. (2005). Migration in West Africa. Lagos: Human Resources Development Centre. [57] Boateng, O. D., Codjoe, Y. N. F., & Ofori, J. (2014). Impact of illegal small-scale mining (Galamsey) on cocoa production in Atiwa District of Ghana. IJAAR 2, 89-99. [58] Amankwah, E. (2013). Impact of illegal mining on water resources for domestic and irrigation purposes. ARPN Journal of Earth Sciences, 2, 117–121. [59] Yunana, A. M., & Banta, A. L., (2014). Socio-economic effects of illegal mining. London: The MIT Press. [60] Conant, J., & Fadem, P. (2008). A community guide to environmental health. Retrieved from https://store.hesperian. org/prod/Community_Guide_to_Environmental_Health.html [61] OHCHR/WHO. (2008). The right to health. Factsheet No. 31. [62] Calys-Tagoe, B., Clarke, E., Robins, T., & Basu, N. (2017). A comparison of licensed and un-licensed artisanal and small-scale gold miners in terms of socio-demographics, work profiles, and injury rates. BMC Public Health, 17 (1), 1-12. [63] Creswell, J. W. & Creswell, D. J. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications Inc. [64] Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. B, (2017). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications. [65] Hammond, M. & Wellington, J. (2013). Research methods the key concepts. New York: Routledge. [66] Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610. [67] Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Qualitative research in psychology: Using thematic analysis in psychology. London: Routledge. Inc. [68] Eyisi, D. (2016). The usefulness of qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods in researching problem-solving ability in science education curriculum. Journal of Education and Practice, 7 (15), 91-100. [69] Eshun, I., & Payne, P. E. (2021). Issues of environmental rights in unregulated artisanal small-scale mining in selected communities in the Mpohor District. American Journal of Social Sciences, 7 (3), 206-218.