[01] Ayman Waziry, Egyptology Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Fayoum University, AlFayoum, Egypt.

Ancient Egyptians constructed their temples and tombs in a precise orientation to specific astronomical points, as seen in the designs of the Old Kingdom pyramids and related temples. This precise orientation is seen in many religious and funerary buildings across the sequential historical epochs of ancient Egypt. This research introduces what can be called "astronomical design improvements" created by ancient Egyptians in order to better secure the precise orientation of religious and funerary monuments. Moreover, this precise orientation requires observatories to be built and used for the orientation and monitoring of celestial objects in order to determine geographical directions. Therefore, this paper discusses the Probability or Possibility hypothesis of Evidences of the existence of Astronomical Observatories in ancient Egypt, the Probability hypothesis leads to suppose the statistical evidences of this research.

Observer, Monitoring, Astronomical Improvements, Observatories, Solstice, Axial Precession, Azimuth

[01] Airy, B. G., On the Algebraical and Numerical Theory of Errors of Observations and the Combination of Observations, Second ed., London, 1875. [02] Aldred, C., Egypt to the End of the Old Kingdom, London, 1965. [03] Allen, J. P., The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Atlanta, 2005. [04] Altenmüller, H., Fest, LÄ II, Wiesbaden, 1977, Cols173-180. [05] Andrea, M. G., Das Pfeiler Dekorationsprogramm im Grab des Meri, Theben Nr.95, Ein beitrag zu den Toten kult- proktiken der 18. Dynastie, SAGA.12, Heidelberg, 1995. [06] Arnold, D., Baukunst, Lexikon der ägytischen Baukunst, Zürich-München, 1994. [07] Arnold, D. & Hornung. E., Königsgrab, LÄ, III, Wiesbaden, 1980, Cols. 500-512. [08] Badawy, A. L., Le Dessin Architectural chez les anciens Egyptiens, Étude comparative des Représentations égyptiennes de Constructions, Le Caire, 1948. [09] Bagnall, R. S., Egypt in Late Antiquity, Fourth ed., Princeton, 1996. [10] Baines, J., & Malek, J., Atlas of Ancient Egypt, New York, 1984. [11] Baines, J., Bnbn, Mythological and Linguistic notes, OR. 39, 1970, pp. 389-391. [12] Bauval, R., & Brophy, T., Black Genesis, The Prehistoric origins of Ancient Egypt, Toronto, 2011. [13] Bauval, R., & Brophy, T., Imhotep, The African Architect of the Cosmos, San Francisco, 2013. [14] Bauval, R., A Master plan for the Three Pyramids of Giza based on the Configuration of the Three stars of the Belt of Orion, Discussions in Egyptology,13, Oxford 1989, pp. 7-10, 16-18. [15] Bauval, R., Astrology in Ancient Egypt, Conception and Birth of Horus and the Astral Birth of the Pharaohs, New York, 2008. [16] Bauval, R., Astrology in Ancient Egypt, The Conception and Birth of Horus and the Astral Birth of the Pharaohs, Online Science Magazine, Published on Saturday, 10 August, 2013, cf: http://www.unexplained-mysteries.com/columnists.php. (At: 27/11/2015). [17] Behlmer, H., Orion, LÄ. IV, Wiesbaden, 1982, Cols. 609-610. [18] Belmonte, J., & Shaltout, M., In Search of Cosmic Order, Astronomy, Landscape and Symbolism, Cairo, 2009. [19] Belmonte, J., & Shaltout, M., On The Orientation Of Ancient Egyptian Temples, I, Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, JHA. 36, No. 3, 2005, pp. 273-275, 297-298. [20] Belmonte, J., On the Orientation of the Old Kingdom Pyramids, JHA. 32, Archaeoastronomy, No. 26, 2001, pp. 1-20. [21] Belmonte, J., Shaltout, M., & Fikri, M., On the Orientation Of ancient Egyptian Temples, JHA.38, Nos. 2-4, 2007.pp. 141-160. [22] Bonnet, H., Realexikon derägyptischen Religion Geschichte, Berlin, 1953. [23] Borchardt, L., Das Grabdenkmal des König Sahu-Re, Vol. II, Leipzig, 1913. [24] Breasted, J. H., The Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, Philadelphia, 1972. [25] Breasted, J. H., A History of Egypt, from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest, London, 1921. [26] Breasted, J. H., Ancient Records of Egypt, 2. Vols. Chicago, 1906. [27] Brophy, G. T. & Schock, M. R., The Origin Map discovered of A Prehistoric, Megalithic, Astrophysical map and Sculpture of the Universe, New York, 2002. [28] Brophy, G. T., Satellite Imagery Measures of the Astronomically Aligned Megaliths at Nabta Playa, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 5, Aegean University, Greece, 2005. [29] Budge, W., The Book of the Dead, The Hieroglyphic Transcript and Translation into English of the Ancient Egyptian Papyrus of Ani, New York, 1999. [30] Caminos, R. A., Notices of Recent Publications, JEA. 37, 1951, pp. 116-120. [31] Carl, R., The Wilderness Route Finder, University of Minnesota Press, USA, 2000. [32] Černy, J., Ancient Egyptian Religion, London, 1958. [33] Clayton, P., Chronicle of the Pharaohs, London, 1994. [34] Couprie, D. L., Heaven and Earth in Ancient Greek Cosmology from Thales to Heraclides Ponticus, New York. 2011. [35] David, G. A., Mirrors of Orion, Star Knowledge of the Ancient World, USA, 2014. [36] Drioton, E., Les Fêtes Egyptiennes, Le Caire, 1944. [37] Edwards, I. E. S., The Pyramids of Egypt, London, 1993. [38] El-Adly, A. S., Das Gründungs und Weiheritual des Ägyptischen Tempels von der Frühgeschichtlichen zeit bis zum Ende des Neuen Reiches, Tübingen, 1981. [39] Erichsen, W., Demotisches Glossar, Kopenhagen, 1954. [40] Erman, E., & Grapow, H., Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache, 6 Vols., Berlin-Leipzig, 1957. [41] Evans, J., A Miniature Ivory sundial with Equinox indicator from Ptolemaic Tanis, Egypt, JHA, 39, 2008, pp.1-5. [42] Faulkner, R. O., The King and the Star-Religion in the Pyramid Texts, JNES. 25, 1966, pp. 153-160. [43] Fitzenreiter, M. & Herb, M., Dekorierte Grabanlagen im Alten Reich Methodik und Interpretation, Ikonographie –Schreiben mit Bildern Ein Essay zur Historizität der Grabdekorationen des Alten Reiches, IBAES,Vol.VI, Berlin, 2006. [44] Fitzenreiter, M., Totenverehrung und Soziale Repräsentation im Thebanischen Beamtengrab der 18. Dynastie, SAK. 22, 1995, pp.95-130. [45] Fomenko, T. A, Krawcewicz, Z. W., & Others, Mysteries of Egyptian Zodiacs and Other Riddles of Ancient History, A Guide to dating Ancient Astronomical Data, London, 2004. [46] Frankfort, H., Kingship and the Gods, Chicago, 1978. [47] Gardiner, A. H., The Problem of the Month-Names, RdE 7, 1955, pp. 60-65. [48] Gauthier, H., Dictionnaire de noms Géographiques, Vol. IV, Le Caire, 1925. [49] Gomaà, F., Letopolis, LÄ III, Cols. 1009-1011. [50] Gonyon, G., Nouvelles Observations Relatives a L' Orientation de la Pyramide de Kheops, RdE. 22, 1970, pp.85-97. [51] Goyon, G., Le Mécanisme de Fermeture à la Pyramide de Chéops, Rev. arch. II, Lyon, 1963. [52] Goyon. G., Kerkasore et L'Ancien Observatiore d'Eudoxe, BIFAO, 74, 1974, pp. 135-138. [53] Grajetzki, W., The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, History, Archaeology and Society, London, 2006. [54] Griffiths, J. G., The Origins of Osiris, Berlin, 1966. [55] Griffo, K., &Berkley, M., African Origin found in Religion and Free Masonry, USA, 2010. [56] Grimal, N., A History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, 1994. [57] Hancock, G., & Bauval, R., Plotting the Pyramids, Nature/ International Journal of Science, Vol. 408, 16 November, 2000, pp. 297-305. [58] Hazard, E. M., Elizabethan silent language, London, 2000. [59] Helck, W., Tempelgründung, LÄ. VI, Cols. 385-389. [60] Hohenkerk, C. Y., Yallop, B. D., & Others, Celestial Reference Systems, In: Seidelmann, P. K., (Ed.) Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Sausalito, University Science Books Press, USA, 2005. [61] Hoyle, F., On Stonehenge, San Francisco, 1977. [62] Hurry, B. J., Imhotep the Vizier and Physician of King Zoser, Oxford, 1926. [63] Huxley, J., From an Antique Land: Ancient and Modern in the Middle East, Boston, 1966. [64] Ingham, M. F., The Length of the Sothic Cycle, JEA. 55, 1969, pp. 36-40. [65] Isler, M., An Ancient Method of Finding and Extending Direction, JARCE. 26, 1989, pp. 191-200. [66] Jeffreys, D., Regionality, Cultural and Cultic Landscapes, Egyptian Archaeology, Edited by: Wendrich, W., London, 2007. [67] Jeffreys, D. G., The Topography of Heliopolis and Memphis, Some Cognitive Aspects, In: Guksch, H. & Polz. D. (Eds.), Stationen, Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte Agyptens, Mainz, 1998. [68] Jéquier, G., Le Monument Funéraire de Pépi II, Vol. II, IFAO, Le Caire, 1938. [69] Jórdeczka, M., &Others, Early Holocene pottery in Western Desert of Egypt: New data from Nabta Playa, Antiquity, Vol.85, Issue 327, January 2011, pp 100-102. [70] Junker, H., & Erich Winter, E., Das Geburtshaus des Tempels der Isis in Philae, Wien, 1965. [71] Kaiser, W., Zu den Sonnenheiligtumen der 5 Dynastie, MDAIK. 14, 1956, pp. 103-107. [72] Kamil, J., Ancient Egyptians Life in the Old Kingdom, AUC, Cairo, 1996. [73] Kees, H., Der Götterglaube im alten Ägypten, Berlin, 1956. [74] Kemp, B., Ancient Anatomy of A Civilization, NewYork, 1989. [75] Kess, H., Das Priestertum in Agyptichenstaat vom Neaen Reich bis zur Spatzeit, Leiden, 1958. [76] Kitchen, A., Feast Kalender, LÄ. II, Cols. 191-192. [77] Kitchen, K. A., The Chronology of Ancient Egypt, World Archaeology, Vol. 23, No. 2, October, London, 1991, pp. 205-211. [78] Kruchten, J. M., L'annéeoù la Fête d'Opetn'eut pas Lieu en Paophi, JEA. 77, 1991, pp.182-184. [79] Krupp, C. E., Great Pyramid Astronomy, In: Griffith Observer, Vol. 42, No. 3, Los Angles, 1978. [80] Lauer, J. P., A propos de L'Orientation des Grandes pyramides, BdE.42, 1966, pp. 9-15. [81] Lauer, J. P., & Žába. Z., L'Orientation Astronomique dans L'ancienne Égypte, et la Précession de L'axe du Monde, BIFAO. 60, 1960, pp. 170-174. [82] Lehner, M., The Complete Pyramids, Solving the Ancient Mysteries, London, 1997. [83] Lehner, M., The Development of the Giza Necropolis, The Khufu Project, MDAIK.41, 1985, pp. 109-143. [84] Lehner, M., The Pyramids, Chicago, 1975. [85] Lehner, M., A Contextual Approach to the Giza pyramid, Archive fur Orientforschung, 32, 1985, pp. 136–140. [86] Lindahl, C. B., Axis Mundi, Charleston, South Carolina, USA, 2012. [87] Lord Rayleigh, O.M., On the Dynamical Theory of Gratings, In: Proceedings of the Royal Society A, Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences, Ser. A 79, Issue.532, London, 1907, pp. 400-402. [88] Lull, J., La Astronomíaen el Antiguo Egipto, Valencia, 2006. [89] Magli, G., Akhet Khufu, Archaeoastronomical hints at a common project of the two main pyramids of Giza, Egypt, NNJ-Architecture and Mathematics, 11, 2009, pp. 35-50. [90] Magli, G., Topography, Astronomy and Dynastic History, Mediterranean archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 59-74. [91] Magli, G., Architecture, Astronomy and Sacred landscape in Ancient Egypt, Cambridge, 2013. [92] Malek, J., Orion and the Giza Pyramids, Review of The Orion Mystery, Discussions in Egyptology, No. 30, Oxford, 1994, pp. 101-114. [93] Malville, J. M., Wendorf, F., & Others., Megaliths and Neolithic Astronomy in Southern Egypt, Nature, Vol. 392, Issue 2, April, 1998, pp. 489-491. [94] Malville, M. J, Schild, R., & Others, Astronomy of Nabta Playa, In: SAAO/South African Astronomical Observatory, African Sky, South Africa Vol. 11, 2007, pp. 2-7. [95] Maragioglio, V. & Rinaldi, C., L'architettura delle Piramide Menfite, 4.Vols. Turin, 1961-1965. [96] Mariette, A., Les Mastabas de L'Ancient Empire, Paris, 1885. [97] Meeus, J., Astronomical Algorithms, Second Edition, USA, 1998. [98] Montet, P., Nouveaux Documents Relatifs à L'Horus-Rê de Sakhebou, Kêmi.13, 1954, pp. 28-30. [99] Montet, P., Le Rituel de Fondation des Temples Égyptiens, Kemi.17, 1964, pp.75-84. [100] Moursi, M. I., Die Hohen Priester des Sonnengottes von Frühzeit Ägyptens bis zum Ende des Neuen Reiches, MÄS. 26, 1972, pp. 130-139. [101] Mueller, I., Spherical and Practical Astronomy as applied to Geodesy, New York, 1969. [102] Murnane, W., Opetfest, LÄ IV, Wiesbaden, 1982, Cols. 574-576. [103] Murray, M., Some Fresh Inscriptions, In: Ancient Egypt and the East, London, 1917. [104] Neugbauer, O., & Parker, R. A., Egyptian Astronomical Texts, "Decans, Planets, Constellations and Zodiacs", Vol. III, London, 1969. [105] Neugebauer, O., The Alleged Babylonian Discovery of the Precession of the Equinoxes, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 70, No. 1,1950, pp. 1-2. [106] Neugebauer, O., On the Orientation of the Pyramids, In: Centaurs, An International Journal of History of Science and its Cultural Aspects, Vol. 24, Issue. 1, USA, 1980, Published Online at 26 July, 2007, pp. 1-3. [107] Parker, A., Ancient Egyptian Astronomy, London, 1974. [108] Parker, R. A., The Calendars of Ancient Egypt, Chicago, 1950. [109] Parker, R. A., The Year in Ancient Egypt, Journal of Calendar Reform, Vol. XXV, No. 2, New York, 1955, pp. 80-84. [110] Petrie, F., The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Republished and Revised Online by: Ronald, B., (Ed.), London & New York, 2003, Last Rev. at August 27, 2014. [111] Posener-Krieger., P., Les Archives du Temple Funéraire de Néferirkarê-Kakaï, Les Papyrus d'Abousir, Vol. 2, Le Caire, 1976/ Bibliothèque d'étude, 65/2.pp. 69-520. [112] Posner, G., A Dictionary of Egyptian Civilization, London, 1963. [113] Preece, E. W., & Goetz, W. P., Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. I, Fifteenth Ed., Chicago, 1979. [114] Ricke, H., Das Sonnenheiligtum des Königs Userkaf, I, Schweizerisches Institut für Ägyptische Bauforschung und Altertumskunde in Kairo, Kairo, 1965. [115] Ricke, H., Eine Inventartafelaus Heliopolis im Turiner Museum, ZÄS. 71, 1935, pp. 111-112. [116] Roger, L. & Others, Heavenly Mathematics, Sun and Architecture GEK 1506, National University of Singapore (NUS)Press, 2014, Faculty of Science, Dept. of Mathematics , pp.1-15, Fig. 2, 1C. [117] Sadek, A. F., Le Plafond Astronomique du Ramessem, Memnonia, I, 1990-1991, pp.140-142. [118] Sauneron, S., Priests of Ancient Egypt, Translated by Ann Morrissett, New York, 1960. [119] Sauneron, S., La Ville de caXbw, Kêmi. 11, 1950, pp. 63-65. [120] Schaefer, B. E., Atmospheric extinction effects on Stellar alignments, JHA.17, pp.535-539. [121] Schaefer, B. E., Atmospheric Extinction Effects on Stellar Alignments, 10Archaeoastronomy Supplement, JHA. 17, 1986, pp. 532-535. [122] Schäfer, H., Die Sonne auf dem Obelisken, OLZ.32/ Orientalistische Literatur-Zeitung, Liepzig, 1929, pp. 722-725. [123] Schott, S., Altägyptische Festdaten, Wiesbaden, 1950. [124] Schweinfurth, G., Ein Neuentdeckter Tempel in Theben, ZÄS. 41, 1904, pp. 22-25. [125] Seth, K., Ein Ägyptisches Denkmal des Alten Reiches von der insel Kythera mit dem Namen des Heiligtums des König Userkaf, ZÄS. 53, 1907, pp. 54-58. [126] Sethe, K., Imhotep, derAsklepios der Aegypter, Ein Vergötterter Mensch aus der Zeit des Königs Ḏoser, Untersuchungenzur Geschichte und Altertumsk und Aegyptens, Vol. II, Leipzig,1902. [127] Sethe, K., Die Beidenalten Lieder von der Trinkstätte in den Darstellungen des Luksorfestzuges, ZÄS. 64, 1929, pp.1-3. [128] Shoukry, M. A., Die Privatgrabstatue im Alten Reich, Le Caire, 1951. [129] Smith, Z. J., Map is not Territory, Studies in the History of Religions, Leiden, 1978. [130] Some of scientists, A new English dictionary on Historical Principles, Oxford, 1888. [131] Spalinger, A. J., Notes on the Ancient Egyptian Calendars, OR. 64, 1995, pp. 17-32. [132] Spalinger, A. J., Calendars, In: Redford, B. D. (Ed.). Oxford Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egypt, Vol. I. AUC Press, Cairo, 2001. [133] Spalinger, A. J., Parallelism of Thought, Hommages à Jean Leclant, BdE 106, 1933, pp. 363-377. [134] Spalinger, A.J., Some Remarks on the Epagomenal Days in Ancient Egypt, JNES. 54, 1995, pp. 33-47. [135] Spence, K., Are the Pyramids aligned with the Stars?, In: The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt ,London, 2003. [136] Spence, K., The astronomical orientation of pyramids, Nature, Vol. 412, 16 August, 2001, pp.698-703. [137] Spence, K., Ancient Egyptian chronology and the Astronomical Orientation of Pyramids, Nature, Vol. 408, 16 November, 2000,pp.320-324. [138] Spencer, A. J., Researches on the Topography of North Saqqâra, OR. 43, 1974, pp. 3-5. [139] Thurston, H., Early Greek Solstices and Equinoxes, JHA.32, Part2, No. 107, 2001, pp. 154-157. [140] Trimble, V., Astronomical Investigation Concerning the So-Called Air-Shafts of Cheops' Pyramid, Berlin, MIO.10, Issue. 2/3, 1964, pp.183-185. [141] Vandier, J., Manuel d'Archéologie Egyptienne, Vol. II, Part. II, Paris, 1955. [142] Vercoutter, J., L’Egypt Ancienne, Paris, 1963. [143] Verner, M., Abusir, Realm of Osiris, New York& AUC in Cairo Press, Cairo, 2002. [144] Verner, M., The Pyramids, New York, 2001. [145] Von-Bomhard, S. A., The Egyptian Calendar, In: Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century, Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, Vol. 2, Cairo, 2003. [146] Von-Beckerath, J., Astronomie und Astrologie, LÄ. I, 1975, Cols. 510-511. [147] Vörös, G., & Pudleiner, R., Preliminary Report of Excavations at Thoth Hill, Thebes, The Pre-11th Dynasty Temple and the Western Building (Season 1996-1997), MDAIK .54, 1998, pp. 335-340. [148] Vörös, G., Hungarian Excavations on Thot Hill at the Temple of Montuhotep Sankhkara in Thebes (1995-1998), ÄAT. 33, No. 3, pp. 201-211. [149] Vörös, G., The Ancient Nest of Horus above Thebes, Preliminary study on the fragments deriving from the Thoth Hill Temple, OMRO.77, 1997, pp. 23-29. [150] Vörös, G., & Pudleiner, R., Preliminary Report of the Excavations at Thoth Hill, Thebes, The Temple of Montuhotep Sankhkara, (Season1995-1996), MDAIK. 53, 1997, pp.283 -287. [151] Vörös, G., & Pudleiner, R., The Crown of Thebes, In: Egyptian Archaeology, Bulletin of the Egypt Exploration Society.11, 1997, pp. 37-39. [152] Vörös, G., The Ancient Nest of Horus above Thebes, Hungarian Excavations on Thoth Hill at the Temple of King Sankhkare Montuhotep III (1995-1998), In: Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty First Century, Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, Edited by: Hawass, Z. & Pinch-Brock, L., Cairo, 2003. [153] Wallin, P., Celestial Cycles, Astronomical Concepts of Regeneration in Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts, Uppsala, 2002. [154] Weinreich, O., Hellenistisch-ägyptischen Religions-geschichte, Imhotep-Asclepius und die Griechen, Aegyptus, 11, 1931, pp. 14-17. [155] Wells, R. A., Origin of the Hour and the Gates of the Duat, SAK. 20, 1993, pp.305-326. [156] Wells, R. A., The Mythology of Nut and the Birth of Ra, SAK. 19, 1992, pp. 307-321. [157] Wells, R. A., Sothis and the Satet Temple on Elephantine, an Egyptian "Stonehenge"?, BSAK. 4, 1990, pp.109-110. [158] Wells, R. A., Sothis and the Satet Temple on Elephantine, SAK.12, 1985, pp. 255-302. [159] Wendorf, F., & Schild, R., Combined Prehistoric Expedition' Radiocarbon dates Associated with Neolithic occupations in Southern Western Desert of Egypt, In: Holocene Settlement of the Egyptian Sahara, Vol. I, New York, 2001. [160] Wendorf, F., & Krolik, H., Complex Structure or Shrines, In: Holocene Settlement of Egyptian Sahara, Vol. I, New York, 2001. [161] Wendorf, F., & Malville, J. M., Megalith Alignments, In: Holocene Settlement of the Egyptian Sahara, Vol. I, New York, 2001. [162] White, M., Ancient Egypt, its Culture and History, New York, 1970. [163] Wildung, D., Imhotep und Amenhotep, Gottwerdung im alten Ägypten, MÄS. 36, 1977, pp. 15-20. [164] Wilkinson, R. H., The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, London, 2000. [165] Wilkinson, R. H., The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, London, 2003. [166] Wilkinson, T., (Ed.), The Egyptian World, 1st Edition, London & New York, 2007. [167] Winlock, H. E., The Tombs of the Kings of the Seventeenth Dynasty at Thebes, JEA. 10, 1924, pp. 217-277. [168] Yoyotte, J., Encore Sakhebou, Kêmi. 15, 1959, pp. 75-78.